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\title{Participatory Semantics Group}
\author{\Large Progress Report 1995--1996}
\maketitle

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% The following \staff macro and {people} environment were created
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\staff{Academic Staff}
\begin{people}
Carl Hewitt, Group Leader
\end{people}

\staff{Graduate Students}
\begin{people}
 Miguel Hall
&Carl Manning
\end{people}

\staff{Undergraduate Student}
\begin{people}
Francis Hsu
\end{people}


\staff{Support Staff}
\begin{people}
Marie Lamb
\end{people}

\newpage

\begin{center}\LARGE\bf
Know-How Infrastructures\\
for\\
Multi-Agency Systems
\end{center}
\markboth{}{}

\begin{center}
Carl Hewitt \& Carl Manning\\
hewitt@ai.mit.edu, carlmanning@ai.mit.edu\\
16 May 1996
\end{center}


%\centerline{\fbox{\psfig{file=Mobile-Distributed-logo.eps,height=5cm}}}
\centerline{\psfig{file=Mobile-Distributed-logo.eps,height=4cm}}

\section*{Abstract}
\bgroup\small
What is exciting about agents?  One attraction is that agents promise to
address one of the fundamental problems we currently have with our
current information infrastructures: how to facilitate making semantic
enhancements to improve assessing, predicting, planning, and
robustness.

However, the foundations of agent-oriented systems are in disarray.
One significant problem is that in typical formulations, agents don't
scale: an organization of agents is not an agent.  The infrastructure
for creating organizations is in its infancy.

To address this issue, we introduce {\em agency} as a process which
contributes toward rendering a service.  Rendering a service is a
discrete unit of activity that has value (that potentially can be sold).

We present a conceptual methodology for understanding multi-agency
systems, which focuses on interactions between participating agencies
in space-time.  We call this methodology Participatory Semantics.

We are applying this methodology to multi-agency negotiations over
future activity, where the participants must share and elicit
potentially conflicting information.

\egroup % small
	
\ \newline Topic:  Conceptual Foundations

\section{Know-How Infrastructures}

\boxfigure{ %Continually Available Info Infrastructure (not only at work stations)
            % enhances (robustness, manageability, accountability) by 
            % enhances (availability, information, interactiveness, responsiveness) of
            % participatory semantics
  \caption{\bf Know-How Infrastructures:
               Synergy of Continual Availability \& Semantic Enhancement}
  \centerline{\psfig{file=khi-synergy.eps}}}

{\em Know-How infrastructures} is our name for information
infrastructures that are comprised of two interdependent and mutually
supporting components:

\begin{itemizeNoSpace}
\item[1.] {\em Continually available telecomputing} provides information services
  at places and times where they are not
  available today.  Information services are now mainly available
  only sporadically during the course of a day (e.g., while at a
  desk, at breaks in meetings).  Know-How 
  infrastructures will be large scale information infrastructures
  linking humans, equipment, and services using wired and wireless
  communication.

\item[2.] {\em Semantic enhancement} is the integrated use of
  semantic methods to address issues of meaning in
  continually available telecomputer systems (e.g., simulating,
  reasoning, modeling methods).
\end{itemizeNoSpace}

Advances in continually available information infrastructure enhance
the development of semantic enhancement and vice versa.  Continual
availability means telecomputing services can be present during more
human activity, bringing those services ``closer to the action'' where
semantic enhancements can be better informed, and can provide better
services to the human participants in multi-agency activity.  In
particular, continual availability improves:

\begin{itemizeNoSpace}
\item {\em Accessibility:}  at hand as needed
\item {\em Immediacy:} recorded on site as it happens
\item {\em Responsiveness:}  effective in real time
\item {\em Transparency:}  integrated naturally into the course of work
\end{itemizeNoSpace}

\noindent
Semantic enhancements provide methods that can improve the usefulness
of continually available telecomputing for participating in and
managing multi-agency activity.  These semantic methods may use
modeling, reasoning, and simulating to improve:

\begin{itemizeNoSpace}
\item {\em Assessing:} understanding past participation.
\item {\em Predicting:} anticipating potential contingencies
\item {\em Planning:} arranging future participating
\item {\em Robustness:} dealing with conflict and difficulty
\end{itemizeNoSpace}

\noindent
We call our approach to semantic enhancements {\em Participatory
Semantics}. 


\boxfigure{
  \caption{{\bf Emergency Management Vignette} ({\sl opportunities for
           the use of Know-How infrastructure emphasized})}
  \label{formal-methods-in-emergency-response}
  \bigskip\bigskip\small

  Consider an emergency management situation, such as battling forest
  fires.  Organizations from several different jurisdictions and areas
  of expertise work together to understand and limit the fire's
  progress.  In the meetings between these organizations,
  meteorologists may constructively analyze and forecast the weather
  ({\sl weather prediction methods}) to
  forecast weather e.g., winds and precipitation.  Forest rangers may
  constructively analyze the path and speed of fires ({\em fire
  prediction methods}) in part by modeling the conditions and
  simulating the effects of the weather.  {\sl Sensitivity analysis
  methods} are used to analyze plans for sensitivity to different
  likely contingencies --- shifts in the wind, faster progress through
  dry terrain, equipment breakdowns.

  Know-How infrastructures enable
  continual interaction among the teams and instruments operating in
  the field and air, and among live operations, constructive analysis,
  and visualization activities.  Observations and readings update the
  maps and models; visualized maps of conditions, visualized models of
  the fire's progress, and visualized simulations of proposed plans,
  all inform the participants.  As the weather and fire fighting teams
  encounter contingencies in the field, {\sl plan revision methods}
  are continually used to assess ongoing activities, reorganize
  plans, and relay them to other 
  teams.  Today continually available communications between teams is
  primarily voice through radio or phone; with Know-How
  infrastructure multimedia 
  information can be sent digitally and processed locally.  For example each
  team member can manipulate their own map view of deployment and
  conditions in neighboring areas; messages of a neighboring teammate
  in trouble can be prioritized over those of another team in a
  different valley.

  }

\boxfigure{
  \caption{{\bf Learning/Educating/Training Vignette} ({\sl opportunities for
           Know-How infrastructure emphasized})} 
  \label{formal-methods-in-education-and-training}
  \bigskip\bigskip\small

  Know-How infrastructure can make project interactions explicit so
  participants can reflect on them and learn more from the experience.
  Learners can use continual availability of their Know-How infrastructure
  in labs, classrooms, tutorials, and at home.

  Consider a learning/educating/training situation, where students in
  geographically separated schools participate in joint projects such as
  managing school compost heaps and recycling programs and projecting what
  their likely future may be.
  
  Learners can measure the pH and temperature of school compost
  heaps and use these measurements to help understand how they operate.
  Analyzing these measurements illustrates important principles of biology,
  chemistry, and physics.
  
  Learners can model the circumstances of their own communities by
  semantic methods such as simulating/modeling \footnote{e.g., using
  systems that 
  are generalizations of simple simulation interfaces such as SimCity,
  SimEarth, etc. in that all of the underlying models are transparent,
  which learners can modify and extend}.  They compare and contrast with
  models and simulations developed by learners in other communities.  In
  time they pass beyond this stage to create and program their own {\sl
  semantic} methods, and {\sl use their own data collection and analysis
  methods}.  These semantic methods can be shared with learners in other
  communities.  Projections of the future are uncertain, so learners
  experience how to probe for sensitivity to different contingencies ---
  shifts in population growth, industrial and agricultural effects, and
  changes in industrial production.
  
  A crucial aspect of projects like these is that they help {\it integrate}
  experience.  Learners experience how to apply not only what they learn in
  mathematics, biology, chemistry, and physics but also what they learn in
  subjects such as politics and history.  Mathematics, biology, chemistry, and
  physics are needed to understand how compost heaps work.  Politics,
  economics, and history are needed to understand how compost heaps and
  recycling affect people's lives.  Their own experiences interacting with
  learners of another community may itself provide background for their
  political and historical understanding.

}

Know-How infrastructures provide means for improving influence on
future activities.  For example, they can be used in activities such
as assessing alternatives, training personnel, and monitoring
competitiveness.  Schedules, plans, action items, agendas, budgets, etc. can
be used to propose alternatives, find conflicts, evaluate options,
make agreements, propagate changes, etc.

Consider the multi-agency vignettes in
figures~\ref{formal-methods-in-emergency-response} and
\ref{formal-methods-in-education-and-training}.  Each vignette
illustrates several opportunities for the use of Know-How 
infrastructure.  Know-How infrastructure can be valuable during
emergency response and 
recovery (figure~\ref{formal-methods-in-emergency-response}).  In
medicine, Peter Szolovits {\it et al.} are proposing the development
of lifetime patient-centered health telecomputing systems
{\cite{Szolovits1994}}.  A key aspect is continual availability of
medical telecomputing services, initially to outpatients such as
diabetics.

Participating effectively in project teams and partnerships is an
important part of people's activities as lifelong learners
(figure~\ref{formal-methods-in-education-and-training}).  Teaming,
partnering, and networking are important social aspects that can be
loosely characterized as follows:

\begin{itemizeNoSpace}
\item In teaming, {\em projects} are given and team members work the projects.
\item In partnering, {\em relationships} are given and partners develop the
      relationships.
\item In networking, {\em encounters} are given and participants elaborate the
      encounters.
\end{itemizeNoSpace}

\noindent
Activities will typically involve all of the above aspects.

Know-How infrastructures technologies can make semantic methods
explicit and available in meetings, in labs, and other times and places
where telecomputing technologies are not now available.  Know-How
infrastructures are especially enabling for learning activities as
learners spend their time on the move between classes, libraries,
meeting rooms, laboratories, etc.



\section{Participatory Semantics}

\begin{quote}
  {\it ``Our intention with this initiative is to promote the notion
  that part of the reason for the repeated failure of large computing
  systems is that we (this culture) have reached the end of a paradigm
  in computing, and that we need more and different mathematics, indeed
  a new theoretical foundation for the science of computing, in order to
  proceed.  The focus of this initiative is the nature of that new
  mathematics that might be important in a new foundation for
  computing.''} {\cite{Landauer&Bellman1994}}
\end{quote}

{\em Participatory semantics} is our approach to semantic enhancements
for participation in Know-How infrastructures.  Participatory
semantics aims to provide conceptual and mathematical foundations to
address how the meanings of participation can be described and
processed using telecomputer services. The semantics of participation
is very broad in that it includes the influences on all subsequent
participation.  In particular it includes social, psychological,
cognitive, and affective aspects of meanings in participation.

%% need to balance by citing other influences
% %{\cite{Montalvo1995,Picard1995}} 

Semantic methods address issues of precision and accuracy in
meaning. Representation technologies developed in the field of Artificial
Intelligence (cf.~{\cite{DavisShrobe&Szolovits1993}}) are important
precursors to semantic methods technologies.  Work on semantic methods
builds on previous work on open information systems summarized in
{\cite{Hewitt&Inman1991}}.  For example {\cite{Manning1987}} describes
a debugging system constructed on precursor principles of semantic
methods.

One important characterization of semantic methods is terms of preparation,
performance, and assessment: 

  \begin{itemizeNoSpace}
  \item {\sl Preparation methods} for preparing for future participation.
        Preparation is multi-faceted in that it can contribute to many
        different future activities.
  \item {\sl Performance methods} for participation.  Performance
        includes preparation and assessment as special cases.
  \item {\sl Assessment methods} for assessing previous participation.
        Assessment is multi-faceted in that it can assess many different
        previous activities.
  \end{itemizeNoSpace}

\remark{it would be nice to follow up on this --- if this is
important, can we do it on our LAPD or other example later?}

\subsection{Accountings, Space-Time Regions, Attributions}

The participatory semantics approach to semantic methods begins by
formulating how we can develop accountings of participation in
multi-agency activity.  Criteria include:
\begin{itemize}
\item Concurrency:  deals with distributed, open, multi-agency systems
\item Scalability:  provides modularity and abstraction to manage
      increasing size and complexity.
\item Plurality:  deals with multiple
      accountings of what was, is, or will be happening, which may
      conflict, or may be incommensurable, but are always incomplete.
\end{itemize}

We present 4 dimensional space-time accountings of activity in 2
dimensional diagrams such as figure~{\ref{LAPD-fig}}.  These
presentations are composed of:

\begin{itemize}
\item Accountings of activities (square-cornered rectangles containing diagrams) 
\item Space-time regions 
  \begin{itemizeNoSpace}
  \item Activities (round-cornered rectangles)
  \item Participants (horizontal "lifelines")
  \item Communication paths (solid-line arrows)
  \end{itemizeNoSpace}
\item Attributions (text with named arguments, or dotted-line arrows)
\end{itemize}

An {\em accounting} tells the story of some activity.  Like a good
news story, the accounting may contain multiple descriptions (views)
of the same activity: A summary overview, description placing activity
within surrounding context, and detailed accounts of the activity.

\begin{figure}[p]
\caption{An Accounting.  (page 1 of 2)}
%% Note: for some reason the BoundingBox in eps files was not accurate.
%% edited x dim so changed BoundingBox from
%%BoundingBox: 0 0 658 756 
%% to 
%%BoundingBox: 54 0 604 756 
%% in order to get figure to fill desired width.
\label{LAPD-fig}
\psfig{file=LAPDA-P1.EPS,width=\textwidth}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[p]
\addtocounter{figure}{-1}
\caption{(continued) (page 2 of 2)}
\psfig{file=LAPDA-P2.EPS,width=\textwidth}
\end{figure}

\begin{quote}
  For example, the RescuedInLA.account contains
  \begin{itemizeNoSpace}
  \item a simple summary (RescuedInLA) and
  \item a more detailed account (RescuedInLA.detailed)
  \item and it places the activity in context (RescuedInLA.context)
  \end{itemizeNoSpace}
  There are also more detailed views of subregions
  (titled Interaction\#1.detail, Interaction\#2.detail, etc.)
\end{quote}

\noindent
An accounting divides space-time into {\em space-time regions} where
activities take place.  The accounting may
divide a region into subregions and relate those subregions.

\begin{quote}
  For example, 
  \begin{itemizeNoSpace}
  \item in RescuedInLA.context, being StrandedInLA is separated
      in space from the LAPD.  
  \item Within RescuedInLA.detail, Interaction\#1 is separated in time
      from Interaction\#2 by a region in which the strandee waited.  
  \end{itemizeNoSpace}
\end{quote}

\noindent
{\em Participants} have space-time regions during which they exist, live,
and participate in activities, their {\em lifelines}.  Participants'
lifeline regions intersect with the space-time regions of the activities
in which they participate.  By convention, time in a diagram increases
from left to right, so later activities are diagrammed to the right of
earlier activities on a lifeline.

\begin{quote}
  For example, in RescuedInLA.context, the LAPD participated in
  several activities including Interaction\#1, then later
  Interaction\#2, and later recorded the activities.
\end{quote}

\noindent
{\em Communications} exist in and travel through space-time.  The path of a
message is a region of space-time.

\begin{quote}
  For example, the communications in Interaction\#1.detail connect the
  Strandee and the LAPD in space-time.  They are ordered by the
  sending and receiving activities on the two lifelines.
\end{quote}

\noindent
An accounting may itself contain nested accounts of past events,
future plans, or both.

\begin{quote}
  For example, Message\#1 and Message\#2 contain plans; these plans
  involve historical context of the situation and future activities.
\end{quote}

\noindent
An {\em attribution} expresses a relationship.  When an Attribution is
shown in a space-time region, it means that someone has attributed
that the relationship specified by the attribution holds in that
region.  The region is an implicit argument in the attributed
relationship.

\begin{quote}
  StrandedInLA is attributed to having been a region where and when
  the Strandee waited.  It is also a region attributed to being a
  region where the Strandee was stranded by the elevator in Marina del
  Rey.
\end{quote}

\noindent
Whether an attribution holds throughout the region or says something
exists within the region depends on the attribution.  

\begin{quote}
  During the region called StrandedInLA, the Strandee was stranded the
  entire time. However, in the region Interaction\#1, the postponement
  didn't happen until the end of the conversation; it did not occupy
  the entire region.
\end{quote}

In these space-time diagrams, only topological information is
significant, i.e., the important information is in which regions are
nested in, connected to, ordered by, etc. other regions and
attributions.  The relative sizing, spacing, and alignment (except for
sharing a border) is not significant.

\begin{quote}
  For example, in RescuedInLA.detail, the relative widths of
  Interaction\#1 and Interaction\#2 is not any indication of their
  relative durations.  Nor is it important that the Strandee and LAPD
  enter RescuedInLA.detail at the same horizontal position (this does
  not mean they entered the activity at the same time).  It is
  significant that the wait between Interaction\#1 and Interaction\#2
  fills the time between them so their borders meet; it is not
  significant that the 1hr wait takes less width on the page than
  either of the interactions.
\end{quote}

\noindent
The absence of information in a diagram does not imply it is not true.
For example, if two regions do not overlap in the diagram, this does
not necessarily mean that they are known not to
overlap.\footnote{However, putting in all this information in the
diagram would obfuscate the diagram.  Dealing with this presentation
issue is an area of future work.}

% One approach is to use defaults --- if
% we create a diagram in which two regions do not overlap, then by
% default we may assume they do not overlap, but be prepared to
% reconsider that assumption.  Similarly, if we don't know whether two
% regions overlap, we may draw them without overlapping by default,
% but be prepared to revise the diagram.}




\section{Multi-Agency Systems (MAS)}

{\em Agencies} is the name that we use for the means by which services
are carried out in telecomputer systems.  {\em An Agency is a process
which contributes toward rendering a service.}  An agency viewpoint
concentrates on {\em how} systems work as opposed to focusing on
exactly which individuals participate.  {\em Rendering a service is a
discrete unit of activity that has value (that potentially can be sold).}
Making extensive use of telecomputing services inevitably means that
multiple agencies interact with each other.

In figure~\ref{LAPD-fig}, the LAPD is an agency, an ongoing process
which provides a service of responding to emergency 911 calls; exactly
who is answering which call is not important.  The LAPD is internally
complex to manage the services it provides with the resources it has.
As in the example when the strandee wasn't able to get help for
several hours because the LAPD was attending to the riots, the LAPD
may not always have resources dedicated to each service, and response
may be delayed as a result.  We can also view the guard and elevator
system as agencies which contributed to freeing the Strandee: the
guard rendered the service of activating the elevator, and the
elevator system (once activated) rendered the service of transporting
the Strandee to the first floor.  The communications system also
renders services, enabling the Strandee to communicate with the LAPD
(but not, in this case, to communicate directly with the guard).

Consider the agencies involved in helping route calls to emergency
services during disaster response and recovery.  In this case
different emergency agencies (fire companies, hospitals, EMTs, police,
etc.) can make use of semantic methods (e.g., to communicate location
of fire trucks, availability of beds, availability of medical
personnel, etc.).  When organizations are overloaded with calls,
receptionist agencies may consult online representatives of nearby
organizations to find alternatives and who has the most appropriate
resources available.  For example, when a call came in during the
L.A.~riot regarding a trapped victim who was not in danger, police
resources were not immediately available.  While police resources were
completely occupied, other organizations such as nearby building
security guards had resources available in the building.  Semantic
enhancements enable participants to make meaningful original
contributions (such as constructing and suggesting alternative plans),
or to process contributions with less burden on human participants
(e.g., prioritizing requests such as the original help form,
fulfilling information processing requests such as finding how to
contact the guard on duty and forwarding the plan).

% If
% receptionist services had forwarded the call to neighborhood negotiation
% spaces, participants in these spaces could recognize that security
% guards were available, and the security guards could have been
% contacted much more quickly {\cite{Hewitt&Manning1994}}.

There are several advantages to analyzing large scale interactions in
terms of agencies rather than agents:
\begin{itemize}
\item Agency allows the internal processes (agencies and individuals)
      to themselves be implemented as distributed, concurrent
      agencies.  Typical agent formulations and architectures limit
      the kinds of internal concurrency.  For example, SOAR
      {\cite{Newell1990}}) is limited to one goal stack.
\item Conversely, combining and organizing agencies results in another
      (composite) agency.  In typical agent formulations and
      architectures, the combination of two or more agents is not an
      agent. E.g., in the SOAR architecture, the combination of two
      SOAR agents is not itself an agent and Society of Mind architecture
      is not itself a Society of Mind.
      (there are no K-Lines between them).
\end{itemize}
\remark{need more here!}

%      Agency abstracts the behavior and responsibilities of 
%      systems of subagencies and individuals.  While an agent may
%      serve as a representative (or interface) for an agency,
%      abstracting the behavior of the agency as the behavior of
%      the representative limits the behavior (e.g., the representative
%      may become a bottleneck)


\boxfigure{
  \caption{\bf Multi-Agency Systems}
  \centerline{\psfig{file=3way-wireless.eps,height=5cm}}}

\floater{The road to ``agent'' hell will be paved with {\em lots of helpful
intentions.}}


\section{Negotiating in Know-How Infrastructure}

Participants in Know-How infrastructure have limited knowledge of each
other's activities.  To arrange and perform activities, participants can
share information.  Where their activities conflict, participants can
explore alternatives.  Also they can explore to improve the outcomes for
everyone.  This process where multiple participants interact to
influence future participation, can be characterized as negotiation.

\floater{Negotiation is largely about influencing future participation.}  

\begin{quote}
  For example, in figure~\ref{LAPD-fig} the strandee made a request
  for help; the LAPD elicited further details (danger, problem,
  location), and found that immediate action conflicted with its
  current first priority, dealing with the riots, so it constructed
  its best quick alternative (waiting 4hrs) and left the negotiation.
  The strandee explored other alternatives, and reopened the
  negotiation with a workable plan which improved the outcome for both
  of them: the strandee was freed earlier, and the LAPD had one less
  case to deal with.
\end{quote}

An important opportunity for the use of participatory semantics is in
negotiating the meanings of telecomputer participation in Know-How
infrastructures.  Semantic enhancements may be used to communicate
about interdependent activities, to explore the influences of
opportunities, to reveal possible contingencies and ways to avoid
conflicts, and to create and adjust agreements and plans as a result.

\begin{quote}
  For example, in figure~\ref{LAPD-fig} the LAPD sent a plan for a 4
  hour delay with enough context to explain the situation.  The strandee
  may have used local services to further analyze the situation and
  construct a possible but incomplete alternative, hoping the LAPD
  agency can contact the guard from the building description given, and
  hoping the guard is able to have the elevator activated.
\end{quote}

\noindent
Semantic methods may be used to interact with an incoming
communication, so that telecomputing services may analyze the
opportunities and constraints (e.g., deadlines, conflicts), reveal
contingencies (e.g., prioritize against other tasks), and adjust plans
(e.g., schedule an interruption to deal with the communication;
see~\S\ref{sec:interruption-management}).

Participants can use negotiation semantics to
influence many aspects of future participation including:
\begin{itemizeNoSpace}
\item {\em tasks} to be performed (e.g., breakdown of project, assignments of
     action items),  
\item {\em products} to be consumed, created, or compared (via verbal and
      textual descriptions, pictures and diagrams, photographs, videos, etc.).   
\item {\em resources} to be used (including available human and
      equipment time, as well as stocks to be used), and 
\item {\em dependencies} between them (including budget and schedule
      restrictions, as well as dependencies between inputs and outputs).
\end{itemizeNoSpace}

Participatory semantics is concerned not only with participants,
tasks, and resources, but also the dependencies and other {\em
relationships} between them.  These relationships include those
between parts of different departments or organizations, so the most
up-to-date information may be {\em distributed} on several
individuals' and organizations' telecomputing systems.

\begin{quote}
  For example, the strandee did not know about the riot or the LAPD's
  task of dealing with it; only when the strandee contacted the LAPD,
  and the LAPD contributed the delay plan\#1 in context, did the
  strandee learn that a non-urgent request to be rescued conflicted with,
  and had lower priority than, the LAPD's ongoing task of dealing with
  LA riots.  (More traditional plan dependencies, such as needing to
  activate the elevator before the strandee can ride it down, could
  also be added as attributions between these activities.)
\end{quote}

Semantic methods give telecomputing services more information about
participation, enabling them to provide additional services
(cf.~{\cite{Dertouzos1991}}).  Thus, people may have semantic methods
for their own tasks on their own telecomputing systems, linked through
networks with semantic methods for managing project plans on the
telecomputing systems of their organization and perhaps those of other
organizations.

\begin{quote}
  For example, if the strandee was using a telecomputer to keep an
  appointment calendar and telephone log, the telecomputer would
  already have the location and call information shown in the
  accountings. 
\end{quote}

\subsection{Negotiation Systems for Participatory Semantics}

To deal with the requirements of Know-How infrastructures, we are
developing {\em negotiation systems} to enable multiple
agencies to ``plug-in'' to negotiation services.  Like a
hardware bus, a negotiation system provides a protocol for
software services (like hardware boards) for negotiation about the
meanings of participation, cf.~the software bus in
{\cite{BellmanGillam&Landauer1993}}.  Unlike early hardware buses
(such as the ISA bus of the PC world), negotiation systems should allow
other software services to be added easily without changing other
participants e.g., dip switch settings.  Like more recent busses such
as the PCMCIA bus, it should automatically perform any reconfiguration
needed to enable participants to be plugged in or removed while the
system is in operation.  The wrapping approach of Landauer \& Bellman
{\cite{Landauer&Bellman1993}} can be used to integrate other software
systems using negotiation systems.

A hardware bus enables cooperation by requiring each board to make
requests and receive permission before taking any bus action.
Negotiation systems can also require participant systems to request
permission by making proposals and requesting the approval of other
systems before taking action under the authority of a negotiation system.
However, hardware bus protocols manage a simple resource (access to
the bus to transfer a short data or signal burst in the immediate
future) and thus can get by with protocols composed of a few request,
priority, grant, acknowledge, etc. signals.  A negotiation system may
manage resources and resource use patterns with much 
greater complexity by providing participants with semantic methods for
managing resources, their relationships, constraints, behavior, and
interactions.
Semantic negotiation spaces can make use of the following semantic methods:

\boxfigure{
  \caption{\bf Negotiation Systems}
  \centerline{\psfig{file=3way-forum.eps,height=5cm}}}

{\em A negotiation system can increase robustness by referring
problematic cases to other parties.} If the negotiation peters out
or times out without a clear agreement, then the negotiation so far
may be summarized and passed on to other parties (e.g., a human, or
another negotiation system) for more in-depth processing.  Thus, some
unresolved conflicts are detected and brought to the attention of
other parties.

{\em Negotiation systems can provide status reports.} At their own initiative
negotiation systems can provide status reports to other parties.  In
addition other 
parties can request status reports.

\subsection{Overload and Interruption management}
\label{sec:interruption-management}

Know-How infrastructures can be continually available through mobile
devices and wireless networks.  Continually availability raises
important issues, such as the tradeoff between availability and the
continual threat of being interrupted by incoming calls or messages.
Effectively managing notifications is an important requirement for
Know-How infrastructures.

Notifications are any asynchronous output to a human (including aural,
visual, tactile, etc.).  Notifications may be generated not only as a result
of incoming calls and messages, but also as a result of ongoing processes
within the Know-How infrastructures.

\floater{Continual Availability raises important issues, such as the tradeoff
between availability and the continual threat of being interrupted by
incoming calls or messages.}

\boxfigure{
  \caption{\bf Interruption and Overload Management}
  \centerline{\psfig{file=interrupt-mtg.eps,height=5cm}}}

Know-How infrastructures can enable people to communicate with each other and
access remote services to improve coordination of their participation.
However, even today many people are inundated with
\begin{itemizeNoSpace}
\item overflowing email inboxes from mailing lists in which they are only
      partly interested, obscuring important messages;
\item phone calls and pagers causing inopportune interruptions in
      meetings and other activities, just because calls {\em could} be
      important 
\end{itemizeNoSpace}

\noindent
With continual availability, communications can arrive at any time,
potentially disrupting ongoing activity, whether it is
important/urgent/relevant or not.  As people start using
communications during their meetings (e.g., to exchange proposals and
documents, to consult partners and team members away from the meeting,
to invoke remote telecomputing services, etc.), it is less of an
option to just shut down communications during the meeting.

Many organizations hire staff to deal with some of these problems, but while
these are becoming issues for everyone, not everyone can afford to hire human
staff to deal with them.  Thus, for example, staff may filter calls
so as to only interrupt a meeting for matters more important and urgent than
the meeting.  Human staff take into account the status of current
activities of their employer, the importance of their concerns about different
aspects of those activities, and the relationships of other actors to the
employer and those activities.

Already some people make use of rule systems for sorting and
prioritizing email based on header fields and keywords.  However,
people change these rules slowly; when people use Know-How
infrastructures to help plan and track their activities and
relationships, the opportunity and need arises to use ongoing activity
information as well to filter and prioritize the communications
received, relative to the activity at hand (e.g., an ongoing meeting).

One approach is to build on the semantic methods people already use to
manage their participation (e.g., in electronic appointment books,
project management tools, etc.).  Knowledge of the the owner's plans
and habits can be used to estimate the owner's likely current
activity.  (Sensing location and who else is in the same room can
provide more clues to the owner's current activity.)

Semantic methods provide a basis for personal receptionist services.
The service tracks different aspects of a person's activities (e.g.,
projects, customers, career, family, etc.).  When an incoming phone
call arrives, the receptionist service may consult the owner's
schedule to help find out if the owner is available for the call.
When the owner is busy (e.g., in a project team meeting), additional
information about the call may be elicited through negotiation
with the caller, or with the caller's personal services.
Simple but helpful call information includes the sender's identity,
the intended recipient (personal or organization/list), and/or the
subject (e.g., a sales call, a subordinate calling in sick).  This
information about the call may help the services associate the call
with recipient's activities (e.g., it's a call about an important part
the team needs soon for another project).  The service may consider
alternative ways of handling the call (take a message, forward the
call to an associate, interrupt the meeting), and reasons for
prefering one alternative to the next as a way of narrowing down which
response is appropriate in the context of the current activities.


% \section{Future Work}

\section{Conclusion}

\boxfigure{
  % \caption{}
  \centerline{\psfig{file=ss-paradigm.eps,width=\boxwidth}}}


{\em Know-How infrastructures} enable people and agencies to invoke
participatory semantics methods without interrupting ongoing
activities.  One promise of agency technology is the semantic
enhancements they provide to information infrastructure.  Semantic
enhancements can improve operations by reducing time, cost, and risk
in designing, testing, planning, analysis, coordination, and
assessment activities among multiple agencies.

In the participatory semantics approach to semantic enhancement, we
account for {\em agency} as a process which contributes toward
rendering a service.  Rendering a service is a discrete unit of
activity that has value.  We have developed a methodology for
accounting for agency activity in space-time, which deals with
\begin{itemizeNoSpace}
\item concurrency: participatory semantics accountings divide
      space-time into regions, and attributions are made within those
      regions (cf. not about global states or worlds)
\item scalability: agencies working together may be modularized as a
      larger, more complex, agency, and attributions may be made
      abstracting the services rendered in terms of the larger agency.
\item plurality:  an accounting may provide multiple views of a
      agency, and may itself contain multiple accountings by different
      authors.
\end{itemizeNoSpace}

Important issues for semantic enhancements for Know-How
infrastructure include the following:
\begin{itemizeNoSpace}
\item {\em semantic methods} for addressing issues of
      precision and accuracy in processing the meanings of
      participation in Know-How infrastructures,
\item {\em services and standards} for negotiation spaces,
\item {\em socially acceptable paradigms and technologies} for
      continual availability,
\item {\em interfaces} to assist interaction with Know-How
      infrastructures and their semantic methods.
\end{itemizeNoSpace}

\section{Acknowledgments}

The work for this paper was sponsored in part by ARPA through ONR and IDA
and in part by MIT.  The views expressed in this paper are not
necessarily those of ARPA, ONR, IDA, the US government, or MIT.

Those who know Kirstie Bellman, Randy Garrett, Chris Landauer, and Julia
Loughran will find their voices in much of what appears in this paper.
The conceptual development of semantic methods has been done jointly
with Kirstie and Chris.  The conceptual development of Know-How
infrastructures has been collaborative work with Randy, Julia, and the
other participants in the ADS TAB.  We look forward to further
participation with all of them in future work on semantic methods for
Know-How infrastructures.

Discussions with David Brock, Peter Brooks, Gary Coe, Dale Lichtblau,
Tom Knight, H.T. Kung, Fanya Montalvo, and Mike Wessler were very
helpful in developing this paper.

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\bibitem[Sycara 1995]{Sycara1995}
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\bibitem[Szolovits 1994]{Szolovits1994}
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\bibitem[Tesler 1991]{Tesler1991}
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% \bibitem[Weider \& Deutsch 1993]{Weider&Deutsch1993}
%   Chris Weider and Peter Deutsch, ``Uniform Resource Names'',
%   IETF Working Draft, October 1993.

\bibitem[Weiser 1993]{Weiser1993}
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\bibitem[Weiser 1991]{Weiser1991}
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\bibitem[Wooldridge \& Jennings 1995]{Wooldridge&Jennings1995}
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\bibitem[Yokoo 1995]{Yokoo 1995}
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\end{secbibliography}

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